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Abstract:
To optimize animal welfare, whole handling systems must be evaluated because there are trade-offs between the different components of an entire system. Some of the factors that will affect the best choice of a handling system are: (i) the skill level of the stock people; (ii) the behavioural characteristics of the animals; and (iii) the design of the races, chutes or corrals. A simple handling system - which may be acceptable for tame cattle that are trained to lead - may have serious welfare problems if it is used with extensively raised sheep or cattle with large flight zones. There are two approaches to facility design: (i) low cost but highly dependent on stock person skills; or (ii) higher cost but easily operated by less skilled people. The choice of race or of yard design is also affected by breed of the animal and its previous handling experiences. Cattle, pigs and sheep will be easier to handle if they are acclimatized to people walking through them. An example of a trade-off in facility design is controlled atmosphere (CAS) stunning of chickens versus electrical stunning. CAS provides the advantage of less stressful handling because live shackling is eliminated; its disadvantage is that unconsciousness is not instantaneous. Some discomfort during the induction of unconsciousness, such as gasping, is offset by less handling stress. All CAS stunning systems should be evaluated by observing the behaviour of the animal before it becomes unconscious and loses the ability to stand.
Abstract:
Although many of the examples in this chapter have come from research conducted with the chicken, the authors' experimental animal, the implications are relevant to all forms of livestock and poultry that are husbanded in flocks and herds. In our opinion, the most important factor affecting the well-being of livestock and poultry is their relationship with their human associates. Kind care (socialization) has many well-being and production benefits. Socialized animals are easier to work with, have enhanced productivity, are more adaptable to adverse environments, are more resistant to diseases and develop better immunity. These factors make genetic selection easier. The responses of individuals within groups are also more uniform, thus reducing the number of animals needed for research. Further, socialization can be applied to large and small groups of animals as well as intensive and extensive production systems.
Abstract:
All farmed animals are regarded as sentient beings, so their welfare is a matter of much public concern. Positive and negative aspects of the welfare of animals during transport should be assessed using a range of behavioural, physiological and carcass quality measures. Health is an important part of welfare, so the extent of any disease, injury or mortality resulting from, or exacerbated by, transport should be measured. Many of the welfare indicators used are measures of stress and involve long-term adverse effects, or indicators of pain, fear or other feelings. Some welfare assessment methods are research tools while others are welfare outcome indicators that can be used by a veterinary or other inspector. Some of the key factors affecting the welfare of animals during handling and transport are: attitudes towards animals and the need for staff training; methods of payment of staff; laws and retailers' codes; journey planning; traceability of animals; genetic selection; rearing conditions and experience; the mixing of animals from different social groups; handling procedures; driving methods; space allowance per animal on the vehicle; journey length; increased susceptibility to disease; increased spread of disease; and the extent to which each individual can be inspected during the journey.
Abstract:
Cattle acclimatized to both people and handling facilities have lower stress and improved productivity. Fearful cattle will show eye white and switch their tails back and forth. In chutes, corrals and other facilities, visual distractions, such as shadows, reflections, a coat on a fence or puddles of water can cause cattle to balk and refuse to move through a facility. Cattle are attracted to light and may refuse to enter a dark building. In indoor facilities, lamps can be used to attract animals. Handlers need to understand behavioural principles such as the flight zone and point of balance of animals. There are five instinctive behaviours that affect how grazing animals behave during handling. These are: (i) the flight zone - animals turn and face a potential threat and keep safe distance; (ii) the point of balance; (iii) animals going back to where they came from; (iv) loose bunching in a herd; and (v) fearful agitated behaviour with animals milling tightly in a circle. Handlers should use the following behaviour of animals to promote their movement, and fill a crowd pen that leads to a single-file race half full. Completely tame animals lose these behavioural patterns and must be led instead of driven. Cattle should be acclimatized to different people, vehicles and handling procedures. Sudden novel events are frightening to animals.
Abstract:
People who take the time to learn the low-stress stockmanship methods developed by Bud Williams and Dylan Biggs will be rewarded with calmer and more productive cattle. These methods take time to learn because the stock person needs to spend time walking through the herd to reduce the size of the flight zone. Yelling, whistling and other sounds of human voices were more stressful to cattle than the sound of slamming gates. Cattle will also struggle less in squeeze chutes when they are blindfolded. Another method to teach cattle not to struggle in a squeeze chute is to release them when they are calm and not struggling. Experiments on a Y-maze showed that cattle prefer to walk towards the light and they will not walk into a sharply bent race where they cannot see a place to go. This chapter also includes a diagram of a Bud Box system designed by Bud Williams which takes advantage of the natural behaviour of cattle to go back to where they came from. This is a simple and economic design that works well when used by skilled people. A diagram is also included of an easy-to-build gate for sorting (drafting) cows from calves. Because calves are smaller, they go through the bottom half of the gate that is open. The cows move through a wide alley because they cannot fit through the calf sorting gate.
Abstract:
Cattle that are managed in close association with people are tame and may have no flight zone. They are either trained to lead with a lead rope or they are easily herded in small groups. These animals are accustomed to lots of human activity around them. Tame and intact bulls that have been kept tied up during rearing will fight vigorously when mixed in group feedlot pens. In Africa and other developing areas, small herds of cattle are kept for draught purposes and milk. There is a concern that the hardy indigenous breeds will be lost. There is also a need to improve handling practices, for instance many animals arrive at markets with injuries caused by handlers. Harness design for working oxen needs to be improved as well. Injuries to the nose can be prevented by using a halter (head collar) to tie cattle instead of a nose ring or nose cord. Draught animals would be more physically fit for work if they were exercised year round. Even though these animals are tame, there is a need for handling facilities, such as truck-loading ramps and a single stall with a head stanchion for veterinary work. The chapter also describes methods for restraining cattle with ropes, blindfolds or pressure applied to various parts of the body, and notes that stroking is most effective for calming cattle when it is done on the ventral region of the neck.
Abstract:
Single-file races and cattle yards using behavioural principles will improve animal handling efficiency and reduce stress. A round crowd pen built in a full half circle with solid sides takes advantage of the natural behaviour of cattle to go back to where they came from. Single-file or double-file races should hold sufficient cattle to encourage following of the leader. Extensively raised cattle and other livestock that are not completely tame will remain calmer in single-file races if they do not see people in their flight zone, so people either need to remain outside the flight zone or a solid fence should be installed to block the animals' vision. In feedlots, truck-loading ramps and slaughter plants, where there are many visual distractions - such as vehicles, people or moving equipment - a completely solid fence on the outer perimeter fences is recommended. The fence on the inner radius of a curved single-file race can remain open on the top half to enable a skilled handler to work the flight zone. To reduce stress, cattle and other extensively raised animals should be acclimatized and habituated to handling procedures by walking them through the corrals. The advantages and disadvantages of different types of squeeze chutes for restraining cattle are also discussed. Animals can be trained to voluntarily accept being restrained, which can greatly reduce stress. Farm animals with flighty and excitable genetics must be introduced more slowly to new things than animals with calmer genetics. The chapter contains layouts, diagrams and information on the design of curved races, circular crowd pens, corrals, yards and squeeze chutes.
Abstract:
Some of the topics covered in this chapter are free-stall (cubicle design) milking parlour design, robotic milking, cow behaviour and bull behaviour. For a high level of well-being, each lactating dairy cow should have her own free stall. Dairy cows are getting larger and they may not fit comfortably into stalls designed for smaller cows. Robotic milking systems may help some family farms to stay in business because labour for milking is eliminated. To be successful, producers must be willing to spend 3 or 4 weeks training new heifers to enter the robotic systems. The relationship between the stock person and the cow is important. Cows with smaller flight zones that do not fear people give more milk. Stroking a dairy cow on the ventral neck region where the mother licks her calf lowers her heart rate. Stock people working with bulls must be trained to recognize a broadside threat. The bull turns sideways and hunches up his neck to show how big he is. Bulls that display a broadside threat towards people are dangerous and culling them is the safest option. A person should never turn their back on a bull.
Abstract:
It is interesting to note that since the first edition of this book the most significant welfare concerns for cattle during transport have remained unchanged. These concerns include the transport of unfit (sick, emaciated, debilitated) cattle, overloading - particularly in lightweight and young animals, and excessive transport distances with long periods between food, water and rest. There is also concern about marketing through auctions, and more information is needed on transportation durations experienced by cattle (usually of poor condition or quality) that are sold and resold through the auction markets. Trips of over 30 h should be avoided if possible because death losses increase sharply. Ambient temperatures below -15°C or above 30°C are detrimental, and space allowances (using an allometric coefficient, the k value) lower than 0.015 and greater than 0.035 are associated with greater losses. Cattle that lose 10% of their body weight during transport have a greater likelihood of dying, becoming non-ambulatory or lame. A recent study of health records from many feedlots indicated that mortality was 1.3% and sickness 4.9%. Truck drivers with more years of experience had fewer compromised animals. Feeder cattle destined to feedlots were twice as likely to die during transport compared with fattened cattle. To provide incentives to reduce losses, there needs to be economic accountability throughout the supply chain for dead, non-ambulatory cattle, bruises and dark cutting meat.
Abstract:
This chapter covers animal handling and transport research in Brazil, Chile and Uruguay. Data collected from 2005 to 2012 clearly show that bruising and other damage to beef and pork carcasses can be greatly reduced by training truck drivers and handlers, and by simple improvements in facilities. Poor design and operation of the door on the beef stunning box caused 36.5% of the bruises. After training and improvements, the percentage of cattle bruised was halved. Cattle that passed through markets on the way to slaughter had four times the risk of having meat of a high pH (>5.8) compared with cattle that were shipped direct. Another advantage of the adoption of low stress handling methods is less stress on the stock people. During cattle truck loading, the elimination of electric prods, hitting and shouting reduced bruising from over two per carcass to less than one. When better methods are used for handling cattle, corrals can be built from less expensive and more economical, for example solid fences that block the animal's vision can be constructed from vertical bamboo strips attached to a wire or wood plank fence. The chapter also provides details of a low cost corral layout and photos of typical South American trucks. The training of handlers and the installation of non-slip floors, solid shields to block cattle vision and head holders improved stunning and reduced both vocalization and the use of electric prods. Further improvements are still needed. In one study, for instance, 17% of the cattle vocalized and 38% struggled in the stun box. A vocalization percentage of 5% or less is an achievable goal.
Abstract:
Sheep handling, behaviour during handling and the stressfulness of different handling procedures are reviewed. There are both individual and breed differences in responses to isolation from other sheep. Isolation is also highly stressful for sheep which, as a species, have intense following and flocking behaviour. The use of dogs in handling yards increases cortisol levels and sheep have good memories for aversive procedures. To prevent sheep from fearing the regular stock person and facilities, it is recommended that painful procedures are performed in a different facility by different people. Shearing and drafting (sorting) was more stressful than drenching or dipping, and this may be partially explained by isolation and separation from other sheep. Positive methods should be used for moving sheep, such as trained lead sheep, food rewards, gentling and habituation to handling facilities. This will help to increase habituation and lower fear. Sheep will not habituate to long-term unpredictable and uncontrollable aversive events that make an animal constantly vigilant for danger and may create a chronic stress state.
Abstract:
Proven designs are presented for races and yards for handling sheep. The bugle and D yard designs take advantage of the natural tendency of sheep to go back to where they came from. The yard designs will also work well for goats. A single, easy-to-build drafting (sorting) race is also included, as well as a layout for a shearing shed that can handle large numbers of sheep.
Abstract:
Various aspects of sheep transport are discussed. There is much concern about the correct stocking density of a vehicle to provide an acceptable level of animal welfare. If sheep are stocked too tightly on a vehicle, a fallen animal may have difficulty getting up. Sheep prefer to brace themselves against the motion of the vehicle by spreading their legs instead of leaning on each other. Driving events, such as acceleration, braking, stopping, cornering, uneven road surfaces and gear changes, are the cause of 22% of loss of balance incidents. The chapter also presents information on stress in relation to transport, the effect of temperature on respiration rate (thermoregulation), feed and water deprivation and time on the vehicle. There is an important species difference between sheep and cattle. When sheep get off a vehicle, they will eat before they will drink, and rest stops must be long enough for sheep to eat and then to drink. If the quality of the journey is good and care is taken to select only sheep that are fit, it is possible to transport certain types of sheep over long distances without the sheep experiencing major welfare problems.
Abstract:
Dogs that perform best for guarding and herding livestock have different behavioural profiles, as stated by the authors: 'herding dogs are selected to show hunting behaviours, such as eye, stalk, grip or heel. Guarding dogs are selected to show more of the wild ancestor's puppy-like or juvenile behaviour, preferring to stay with the "litter" of livestock to which they are bonded, and to react to novelty by barking an alarm'. In addition, the chase and bite behaviours are absent in guarding dogs. Ranchers in the western USA have reported that cattle located in areas of high wolf predation learn to react to Border Collie herding dogs by attacking them and so they are no longer useful for herding. The guarding dog that does not perform threatening movements towards cattle is tolerated. Ranchers have observed that the reintroduction of wolves has made mother cows more aggressive towards domestic dogs. Previously, the presence of smaller coyotes did not cause mother cows to be aggressive towards herding dogs. The protection of sheep against wolves will require two to five guard dogs.
Abstract:
Fear is a motivational state aroused by certain specific stimuli that give rise to behaviour to escape. Pigs that are fearful of people are more difficult to handle. Fearful pigs will also have lower productivity on a variety of production parameters, such as weight gain and piglet production. Many studies have shown that pigs develop conditioned avoidance or approach responses depending on how they are treated by stock people. Examples of aversive negative treatments are slaps, kicks or shocks with electric prodders; examples of positive interactions are pats, strokes, or resting a hand on the back of the animal. Pigs that are handled in a negative manner often fear all humans, but there are some situations in which they can discriminate between aversive and positive handlers. The attitude of the stock person is very important and it is highly recommended that stock people are trained about pig behaviour to improve their attitudes towards animals. Stock people with positive attitudes towards pigs will have more productive pigs. Other subjects covered in this chapter are learning, the effects of environmental enrichment on pig handling and the behavioural principles of pig handling.
Abstract:
The welfare of pigs during transport depends on many interacting factors, such as the condition of the animal, temperature, loading density, time in transit and other factors. Death losses during transport of pigs can vary from a low of 0.06% under good conditions to a high of 6.8% under very hot conditions. Sometimes, very short journeys are more stressful than longer journeys. During longer journeys, the pigs may have time to recover from the stress of loading before they are unloaded. Withdrawing feed the night before the day of slaughter and before transport, and keeping trucks moving to improve ventilation helps to reduce stress. The minimum space (in m2) that allows all the pigs to lie down is given by the formula 0.027 × w0.66; this equals 0.564 m2 for a 100 kg pig and 0.6708 m2 for a 130 kg pig.
Abstract:
Over 113 million pigs are transported to market in the course of commercial production in the USA. Transportation losses are an issue in terms of both welfare and economics. Different shapes and sizes of vehicles are used globally, and vehicle choices are based on the number of animals to be transported, weather conditions of the region, facilities available, laws and professional judgement. For most of the pigs, transportation is a novel or unfamiliar experience, which can be stressful. Enrichments at the time of rearing can ease the handling process. Transportation stress can be affected by the events even before actual transportation starts or after the trip has ended; these include rearing, and the loading and unloading processes. Selection of appropriate handling tools can ease loading and unloading in terms of pig welfare, efficiency and safety of handlers. Stress levels of pigs and handlers can also be minimized using proper design of ramps and elevators (lifts) for loading and unloading. Appropriate ramp material, design, lighting, cleat spacing and ramp angle are the points to be considered when designing ramps. On the trailer, space per pig, group size, levels and quality of bedding, boarding, sprinkling, distance transported and other on-board facilities such as feed and water can have impacts on pig welfare, transportation losses and overall economics.
Abstract:
This chapter reviews various horse handling methods, including imprint training and positive methods of training, horse transport and issues related to horse slaughter. The review of imprint training studies indicates that there have been mixed positive and negative results, and that the process may interfere with foal bonding with the mare. Brushing and stroking the mare will facilitate approaching and handling the foal. Positive methods of training, such as clicker training, are very helpful for training horses to enter a trailer. Horses can become stressed when they travel alone, and the position facing rear to the direction of travel may be less stressful. Stalls in horse trailers should be designed so that horses can see each other. During transport, horses will drink less water and there should be stops every 16 to 24 h for feed and water. Since the US horse slaughter plants were closed, horse rescue groups are overwhelmed. In Europe, transport laws are not enforced, and one-third of the slaughter horses that arrive in Italy are not fit for transport. Cortisol levels are higher after transport than after stunning at slaughter.
Abstract:
In a relatively short time, farmed deer have become less flighty. This may be the result of selection for temperament, or a better understanding of deer behaviour, of training deer to handling procedures and of better facility design. Improvements in human-animal interactions when working with deer have resulted in better safety for handlers and enhancement of deer welfare. Regular exposure to calm handlers and training deer to move through facilities for food rewards is helpful. A U-shaped design of the handling race takes advantage of natural deer behaviour to return to where they came from. All people working with deer should be adequately trained and, in some countries, this aspect is required by welfare codes. This chapter is based on previous versions by Dr Lindsay Matthews in earlier editions of the book, and covers best handling and transport practices for red deer, fallow deer, wapiti (elk), bison and other species.
Abstract:
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) has estimated that 87% of transported poultry is broiler chickens. Broiler death losses during transport average 0.2% but can vary greatly. In layers, low feather cover is associated with more mortalities and in broilers, poor health increases transport losses. It is difficult to remove hens from furnished colony cages and this can result in more injuries. Design innovations are needed. Mechanical catching of broilers reduces stress during container loading. It is slower than manual catching and may result in more heat stress mortalities during hot weather unless two machines are used. In hot temperatures, stocking rates should be reduced and trucks need to be kept moving to prevent heat stress. In cold winter temperatures, chickens can be exposed to both heat stress or cold stress in different parts of a vehicle with closed curtains. Death losses tend to increase with longer transit times.
Abstract:
Welfare is not totally objective. What level of physiological stress or mortality is acceptable? How hungry or thirsty can an animal become before the conditions are not acceptable? Degrees of hunger, dehydration and other stresses can be measured with objective biochemical methods or other tests. One must remember that during mating, play or hunting, many of the biochemical variables that are commonly used as measures of welfare reach extreme values. In these situations, the animal may have good welfare. However, many stressors that occur during transport have a longer duration. In this chapter, studies on transport mortalities for cattle, calves, sheep, pigs and poultry are reviewed. The chapter also reviews measures of physiological indicators of fasting, dehydration, general reactions to stress (heart rate, cortisol, respiration and glucose) and physical activity (lactate, glycogen, creatine kinase).
Abstract:
Careful quiet handling during the last 15 min before slaughter is essential to reduce stress and maintain high meat quality. The use of electric prods on cattle and pigs, and the use of dogs on sheep, greatly increases lactate and cortisol levels. Adverse handling events that occur shortly before slaughter have a detrimental effect on meat quality. Another source of stress during pre-slaughter handling is the effect of suddenly introducing the animal into a totally unfamiliar new environment. Animals that are more reactive to new environments on the farm experience more stress at slaughter. Training animals and getting them accustomed to handling and moving through alleys on the farm make them easier to handle and reduce stress at the slaughter plant. Simple improvements in the handling facility can also facilitate animal movement. Non-slip flooring is essential and lights can be used to attract animals into races. Changes in lighting to reduce reflections on wet floors or metal will also improve animal movement. This chapter covers the design and layout of lairages, races, crowd pens and restrainers. If animals vocalize (bellow or squeal) while held in a head or body restraint device at the slaughter plant, either the design of the device or its operation needs to be improved.
Abstract:
Use of good biosecurity practices will help to reduce disease spread. To prevent disease transmission on to a farm, all incoming animals should be isolated and, when possible, tested for disease before they are added to the herd. An important principle of biosecurity is the biosecurity sequence, which details different groups of animals. Procedures need to be most strict at the beginning of the sequence and less strict at the end of the sequence. The sequence is: (i) foundation herds and flocks; (ii) newborn animals and commercial multiplier herds; (iii) commercial livestock used for breeding and production; (iv) feedlots, grow out and production operations with no breeding; and (v) areas of high contamination and commingling, such as livestock markets, wet markets, slaughter plants and rendering plants. If a severe disease outbreak occurs, immediate closing down of markets may help to reduce its spread. The chapter also reviews methods to reduce Escherichia coli and Salmonella contamination of beef and pork. Lists also are included of select agents and toxins as defined according to the US Select Toxins Regulations, and of diseases that require the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) to be notified by member nations.
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